AR and neoplasm: Although endocrine research has greatly advanced our identification of the direct roles of steroid sex hormones such as androgens and estrogens on tumor cells in promoting metastasis or recurrence (e.g., treatment with gonadotropin releasing hormone agonists/antagonists, aromatase inhibitors, and estrogen and androgen receptor antagonists), mechanistic insight regarding indirect effects of steroid hormones, including how the innate immune system responds to cancer and is influenced by steroid hormones, is lacking.