We examined molecular biomarkers, including genomic alterations, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNAs; protein biomarkers associated with oncogenic signaling, cell-cycle regulation, apoptosis, inflammation, and angiogenesis; as well as circulating biomarkers such as circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), circulating tumor cells (CTCs), and exosome-derived RNA.<h4>Results</h4>Among currently available biomarkers, p16, PD-L1, and circulating HPV DNA demonstrate the strongest clinical applicability, particularly for risk stratification and post-treatment surveillance. Here, CD274 is linked to neoplasm.