Medical risk factors for progression from TB infection to TB disease included diabetes mellitus (DM), chronic kidney disease (CKD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), undernutrition (including iron and vitamin D deficiency), cancer-particularly haematological malignancies-and immunosuppressive therapies (TNF-α inhibitors and glucocorticoids). Here, TNF is linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.