TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Without ABX, EPP significantly ameliorates IBD symptoms and colonic pathology damage in rats, reduces the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) (<i>p</i> < 0.05), inhibits the activation of the TRAF6/NF-κB signaling pathways, and reverses gut microbiota imbalance by partially restoring Bacteroidetes abundance and reducing Firmicutes levels.