TGFB1 and neoplasm: Tumor-associated macrophages, the most abundant immune cells in HCC TME, predominantly polarize toward the M2 phenotype under the induction of HBV-encoded proteins (e.g., HBx) and tumor-derived cytokines, thereby promoting angiogenesis, extracellular matrix remodeling, and immune escape by secreting IL-10, TGF-β, and vascular endothelial growth factor (Zhu et al., 2021).