TNF and Hyperammonemia: Hyperammonemia also increases the amount of EV released by monocytes and the content of TNFR1 and TNFα in the pathological EV, which induce glial activation, activation of the TNFα-TNFR1-S1PR2-IL-1β-IL-1 receptor-CCL2-BDNF-TrkB pathway, and alterations in the membrane expression of NMDA or AMPA receptors in hippocampal slices from control rats.