Despite its typical association with cellular DNA damage, it can also induce inflammation, upregulate interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF 4), promote M2 macrophage polarization, activate the complement pathway, and cause the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, TNF-α, and chemokines MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-2, RANTES, EOTAXIN, and GROα, ultimately inducing an inflammatory TME and tumor immune suppression [51,81]. Here, TNF is linked to neoplasm.