INS and non-small cell lung carcinoma: In addition to FPG, other biomarkers of glucose metabolism, such as glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), insulin, C-peptide, and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), have been reported to hold significant prognostic value in NSCLC and could provide complementary perspectives on metabolic status (28, 35, 36).