In autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, intestinal epithelial cells in patients with IBD upregulate the IRF1-ZBP1 module under IFN-γ stimulation, promoting RIPK3/caspase-8 oligomerization and co-localization of apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis markers, disrupting the tight junction protein ZO-1 (40, 41). Here, IRF1 is linked to inflammatory bowel disease.