TNF and neoplasm: The non-cholesterol-mediated mechanisms include: (i) induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, where statins promote cancer cell death by activating apoptotic pathways and downregulating cyclins and CDKs; (ii) anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, where statins reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP) and enhance immune responses, diminishing tumor-supportive inflammation.3