TNF and neoplasm: Notably, tumor-derived exosomes facilitate the activation and expansion of MDSCs via intercellular communication, thereby contributing to the immunosuppressive TME.278 Moreover, the fatty acid cargo of tumor EVPs, particularly palmitic acid, has been shown to stimulate Kupffer cells to secrete TNF, creating a proinflammatory microenvironment in the liver.279 Tumor-derived exosomes also promote the polarization of macrophages toward a glycolytic-dominant phenotype.