KEGG pathway analysis mapped the core metabolites to key metabolic axes implicated in PCOS and modulated by BSTJF intervention, including core energy metabolism (carbon metabolism, carbohydrate digestion/absorption), insulin sensitization networks (insulin signaling, AGE-RAGE axis), and antioxidant defense (ascorbate/aldarate metabolism) (Fig. 8I; Supplementary Table 3). Here, INS is linked to polycystic ovary syndrome.