Beyond these direct transcriptional effects, broader phenotypic changes in TGF-β-treated HIV-1-target cells may likewise alter viral restriction factors and/or susceptibility to infection [i.e., by impacting cell differentiation (43, 136, 137), triggering changes in cell adhesion and trafficking (137, 138), or via metabolic reprogramming (54, 139)], but much more work in this area is still required. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and infection.