GFAP and Alzheimer disease: Interestingly, analysis of the IR area of GFAP+ and vimentin+ macroglia, as well as IBA1+ microglia, thereby accounting for cell morphology and process hypertrophy, showed significant expansion of all gliosis markers in MCI retinas (1.5–1.9-folds, p < 0.05–0.01), with further marked expansion observed in AD retinas (2.3–2.8-folds, p < 0.0001) relative to normal-cognition controls (Fig. 5C, E, I; extended data in Supplementary Fig. 11C–E).