PTEN and glioblastoma: The pathophysiological mechanisms that give rise to gliomas are similar to those of other tumours, which are essentially single-cell genetic disorders (Table 1), for example, mutations in IDH, TP53, and deletions in PTEN, especially in glioblastoma (GBM), have a relatively low rate of IDH mutation, but are closely related to prognosis (Eckel-Passow et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2017; Illana et al., 2025; Bai et al., 2025; Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2019; Aebisher et al., 2024).