SOD1 and Infertility: These alterations indicate an accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and peroxidative damage to membrane lipids, ultimately compromising the structural and functional integrity of germ cells, which is consistent with earlier reports that implicate oxidative stress as a major driver of BPA-mediated testicular injury and infertility.24 Treatment with the ethyl acetate fraction ofBidens pilosa effectively countered these disturbances in a dose-dependent manner, since both 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg enhanced SOD activity, with the higher dose producing a more pronounced effect.