INS and Cognitive impairment: While NE primarily induces cognitive impairment through HPA axis overactivation and glucocorticoid-related neurotoxicity (Dorey et al., 2012, Tatomir et al., 2014, Atsak et al., 2016), STZ disrupts insulin signaling and glucose metabolism, leading to neuronal dysfunction (Salkovic-Petrisic et al., 2013, Li et al., 2016, Rostami et al., 2017).