TNF and ischemic stroke: In the case of ischemic stroke patients, pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in particular, are released within the first 24 h, with their levels positively associated with stroke severity and a poor prognosis; this process is followed by the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines to prevent secondary inflammatory degradation (Thapa et al., 2023).