TNF and infection: When we examined the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines and interferons, we found that the expression levels of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interferon beta (IFN-β), and interferon lambda-1 (IFN-λ1) were not altered by MPXV infection (Fig. 4A, S2B).