Notably, nifedipine, an MCP-1 antagonist, has been reported to improve blood‒brain barrier function in SAP rats by downregulating MCP-1 expression.311 In clinical studies, monoclonal antibodies targeting MCP-1, such as Carlumab, have been investigated in trials for tumors and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis; however, their efficacy remains uncertain.318,319 Moreover, MCP-1 is a representative redundant chemokine that may be partially compensated for by other CC chemokines, potentially limiting its therapeutic consistency. Here, CCL2 is linked to pulmonary fibrosis.