Among women with pre-pregnancy overweight/obesity, mid-FAS and peri-FAS exhibited an enhanced risk of GDM (aRR 1.34, 95% CI 1.10, 1.63) (Figure 3), as well as higher risks of GHDs (aRR 1.34, 95% CI 1.02, 1.76; pfor interaction = 0.01) (Figure 3, Table A5), when compared with the no-FAS group. Here, FAS is linked to obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.