In three-dimensional renal fibrosis chip models and mouse models, Vactosertib exerts anti-fibrotic effects by inhibiting TGF-β signaling pathways in renal tissue cells (e.g., fibroblasts), regulating inflammatory cytokine expression, and promoting angiogenesis (Jang et al., 2025). Here, TGFB1 is linked to renal fibrosis.