For example, elevated expression of ISG15, which was induced in our model, is associated with increased immune infiltration in pan-cancer analyses (Wei et al. 2025) Therefore, while we could not directly measure immune infiltration, our results may provide a mechanistic rationale for investigating IFN-β as a strategy to convert the immunologically ‘cold’ bladder TME into a ‘hot’ state, thereby mimicking a key functional outcome of successful BCG therapy. This evidence concerns the gene IFNB1 and cancer.