Several miRNAs, including miR-330-3p, miR-223, and miR-452-5p, augment IEC apoptosis through distinct molecular pathways: miR-330-3p downregulates X-box binding protein 1 (XBP-1), a transcription factor induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress that modulates autophagy and apoptosis (21); miR-223 influences the PI3K/AKT/mTOR axis in IECs, thereby promoting apoptosis and impeding mucosal healing during inflammation (22); and miR-452-5p targets the anti-apoptotic protein Mcl-1, altering IEC responsiveness in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease (23). Here, XBP1 is linked to inflammatory bowel disease.