TNF and myeloid sarcoma: Of note, TNFα is reported to exert both pathogenic and protective effects in MS, depending on the receptor subtype engagement: signaling via TNFR1 generally promotes inflammation, apoptosis, and demyelination, whereas TNFR2 activation supports remyelination and neuroprotection, particularly through regulatory T cells and oligodendrocyte precursor cells (Arnett et al., 2001; Fresegna et al., 2020).