For example, Dex has been reported to attenuate neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment by suppressing HMGB1/RAGE/NF-κB signaling (Wang et al., 2022) and to reduce apoptosis and improve tissue survival after ischemia/reperfusion injury via activation of PI3K/Akt and STAT3 (Chang et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2023). Here, HMGB1 is linked to Cognitive impairment.