TNF and brain ischemia: In the early stage of cerebral ischemia, hypoxia leads to neuronal necrosis and the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), activating microglia and astrocytes and triggering the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and other chemokines [7].