In terms of diagnostic accuracy, the GDATA model had an accuracy of 81.90% in diagnosing early HCC, which was significantly higher than the GALAD model (74.72%), as well as all single indicators (GPC3: 69.20%; AFP: 75.28%; AFP-L3%: 62.09%; DCP: 69.97%) (see Figure 5 for specific comparison results). Here, AFP is linked to hepatocellular carcinoma.