TGFB1 and neoplasm: Through SMAD-dependent and SMAD-independent pathways, TGF-β dampens cytotoxic T-cell and NK-cell activity, reduces the production of key immunostimulatory cytokines such as IL-12 and IFN-γ, and favours the accumulation of regulatory T cells and tumour-associated macrophages, thereby creating a tolerogenic tumour microenvironment [28,29].