For example, GPR56 (Bae et al., 2014) and Cdk5 (Shinmyo et al., 2017) can affect progenitors and neurons in migration, SP0535 (Qi et al., 2023) can affect neural proliferation, and foxp2 can affect neural differentiation (Lai et al., 2003; Barresi et al., 2024), all of which change the cortical expansion rate and thickness, consequently leading to brain malformation and pathologies, as listed in Appendix 1—table 1. This evidence concerns the gene FOXP2 and cerebral malformation.