EPO and anemia (phenotype): Among those receiving hemodialysis, anemia most often develops because of reduced erythropoietin (EPO) production, disruptions in iron metabolism associated with chronic inflammation, blood loss, and oxidative stress (Fishbane and Spinowitz, 2018; Astor et al., 2002; Ifudu et al., 1996; Escandell-Montero et al., 2014; Babitt and Lin, 2012; Ku et al., 2023).