In chronic airway inflammatory diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma, leukocyte integrins mediate immune cell infiltration, while αvβ6/αvβ8 promote airway remodeling through abnormal TGF-β activation, ultimately leading to airflow limitation and tissue structural remodeling (77, 78). Here, TGFB1 is linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.