TNF and Sepsis: While heat-killed probiotics and acetate did not attenuate any 24 h post-sepsis parameters (kidney and liver injuries, leaky gut, and serum cytokines), butyrate attenuated some parameters, including liver injury (alanine transaminase), gut permeability (FITC-dextran), and serum TNF-α (no effect on serum IL-6 and IL-10) (Fig. 7B–H).