INS and type 1 diabetes mellitus: Currently, for patients sufferingfrom type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and significant portions of patients withtype 2 diabetes (T2DM), insulin therapy via subcutaneous (s.c.)administrationthrough insulin pens or pumps remains a major pharmacological interventionfor managing diabetic conditions and maintaining glycemic control.However, s.c. injection is not only inconvenient and causes discomfortbut can also cause side effects, such as local infections.