TNF and Insulin resistance: Activation of the NF-κB/IκB kinase complex signaling pathway, potentially induced by TNF-α and IL-6, leads to serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1), which disrupts normal insulin signaling (e.g., by causing dissociation of IRS-1 from the insulin receptor) and contributes to the development of insulin resistance [44].