TNF and myocardial infarction: During an influenza infection, pro-inflammatory cytokines of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 have been shown to be released, which disrupt endothelial function, raise vascular resistance, and increase the risk of thrombosis, which subsequently increases the likelihood of experiencing CV complications such as a myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, or heart failure [25].