TNF and colitis: In Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-treated mice, oral administration of F. nucleatum-derived EVs significantly worsened colitis severity by downregulating miR-574-5p and activating the CARD3-dependent autophagy pathway in IECs, which led to reduced expression of tight junction proteins ZO-1 and occludin, elevated IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα secretion, and pronounced epithelial damage (Wei Z. et al., 2023).