INS and diabetes mellitus: Glucokinase (GCK), arginase-1 (Arg-1), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) are molecules closely associated with hepatic gluconeogenesis and play crucial roles in regulating glucose metabolism, insulin resistance, and metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus.