For instance, Stachyose ameliorated NAFLD by promoting hepatic synthesis of primary BAs by inhibiting the FXR/SHP pathway to upregulate CYP7A1 and CYP27A1, while simultaneously suppressing their gut microbial conversion into secondary BAs (Li et al., 2025). This evidence concerns the gene NR0B2 and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease.