TNF and Insulin resistance: Meanwhile, TNF-α activates stress-related kinases, including p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and inhibitor of kappa B kinase (IKK), which results in further serine phosphorylation of the insulin receptor and IRS-1, thus leading to insulin resistance on glucose uptake and GLUT4 translocation (77, 78).