For instance, in several animal models of AF, such as heart failure-induced AF in rats (Chong et al., 2015) and rabbits (Liu et al., 2016), the spontaneously hypertensive rat model (Wang et al., 2015), the canine model of rapid atrial pacing (Zhao et al., 2021), the diabetes-induced AF rat model (Xue et al., 2020), and the Ach-CaCl2-induced rat model (Xu et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2025a), the expression of PI3K and AKT was significantly downregulated. Here, AKT1 is linked to heart failure.