PARP1 and chronic kidney disease: In vitro studies further revealed that EFT enhanced renal tubular epithelial cell viability, improved clonogenicity, and suppressed fibrosis-related protein expression, primarily by inhibiting the poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) signaling pathway, suggesting that EFT may attenuate fibrosis and cellular injury in CKD, thus offering a complementary strategy to conventional therapies (70).