Key signaling pathways implicated in this neuroinflammatory cascade include phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), NF-κB, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), brain-derived neurotrophic factor/tropomyosin receptor kinase B (BDNF/TrkB), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/antioxidant response element/heme oxygenase-1 (Nrf2/ARE/HO-1) pathways, all of which contribute significantly to epilepsy progression. Here, BDNF is linked to epilepsy.