TNF and tuberculosis: First, TB induces persistent chronic inflammation through the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IFN-γ) that promote tumor development, progression, angiogenesis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) (Cao et al., 2019; Budisan et al., 2021; Tan et al., 2021; Qin et al., 2022; Preda et al., 2023).