TGFB1 and neoplasm: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key molecule regulating tumor angiogenesis (Apte et al., 2019); fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) are potent mitogens that can stimulate cell proliferation (Jung et al., 2025); and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine that, in the later stages of tumor progression, acts as a key driver, strongly inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), promoting invasion, and mediating immune suppression (Shi et al., 2022; Chan et al., 2023).