This immunomodulatory effect helps preserve epithelial barrier integrity, thereby reducing the risk of inflammatory conditions such as dermatitis, intestinal inflammation, and osteoarthritis.[12] Mechanistic studies have elucidated specific pathways underlying its anti-inflammatory actions: A study by Lee, HW et al demonstrated that theobromine activates the p38, JNK, and NF-κB signaling pathways in macrophages, leading to enhanced production of inflammatory mediators. Here, NFKB1 is linked to osteoarthritis.