In neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), PS-NPs penetrate cells depending on their size, interacting with proteins including TDP-43, and the kinases CK1 and GSK3β, inducing TDP-43 hyperphosphorylation, causing ALS-like phenotypes with impaired neuronal morphology, worsened mitochondrial respiration, and accelerated motor neuron death [115]. Here, TARDBP is linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.