ENTPD1 and neoplasm: By loading these carriers with CD39/CD73 inhibitors (which block adenosine generation at its source) or A2AR antagonists (which inhibit adenosine-mediated immunosuppressive signaling), MSC-exosomes can effectively alleviate adenosine-induced suppression of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and restore their tumor-killing capacity, exerting a synergistic effect with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy, further enhancing the overall anti-tumor immune response [127].