TNF and infection: The infection of this bacterium can cause chronic inflammation of the gastric mucosa and release a series of cytokines and chemokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), etc., and these inflammatory mediators further activate the nerve endings in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to gastrointestinal dyskinesia and visceral hypersensitivity (51).