Administering HMO-containing formula decreased proinflammatory markers, including CXCL15 (murine IL-8 homolog), in the serum and ileum of NEC-affected mice [206], reduced TLR4 protein abundance, NF-κB signaling, and restored proliferation of intestinal crypt cells in the ileum and in organoids [206]. Here, TLR4 is linked to necrotizing enterocolitis.